MUNICIPAL PLANNING TOOLS

The Policy Culture of Urban Densities

Cities and living organisms grow and react, thrive and decline.
Good mobility is vital to urban life.  
                                  - courtesy of Ethel Vrana

What factors influence citizens to live in (a) low- density, car-oriented areas of mostly single-family houses, (b) in compact, walkable neighborhoods of double- and triple-unit buildings mixed with low-rise apartments, or (c) in high-rise apartments near a metro station of a rail network?

Some factors are clearly individual and household preferences, but many depend on local public policies. In the US, local means the array of city, suburb, township, special district, county and regional units of government (often including unincorporated districts and other political abnormalities). What kind of local are you?

In the US, almost all transit development and services derive from some sort of regional authority.  It must interact with state and federal funding sources. These are beyond the scope of this section.

High-rise living is not just for Manhattan anymore. Here is one proposal for Austin, Texas.

Here we focus instead on local governments. What local policies or non-policies do they set that affect our life-style preferences? Programs within City Hall are many and varied, and act upon each other synergistically. In other words, an array of small measures together can have significant impacts. The most significant of these are described here:

1. Noise Control:  How courteous are residents and visitors in avoiding loud noises which disturb neighbors and make them yearn to live in lower density?  Do police respond effectively to complaints about disturbing noise and help educate citizens about comfortable community life? Do building codes encourage adequate noise insulation?
2. Driving & Parking Etiquette:  Is traffic tamed and non-threatening, or do drivers threaten each other, pedestrians and bikers? What priorities guide the setting of traffic light cycles? Do parkers stay off sidewalks in respect to pedestrians? How quickly and effectively do police identify violations and enforce regulations?
3. Congestion Management & Pricing :  Street congestion in commercial and community centers can be mitigated by many measures, such as restricting hours for truck and parcel deliveries and requiring off-street unloading docks. Singapore, London and others non-US cities reduce traffic and raise revenues for transit and landscaping improvements with streets charges (congestion pricing). Municipal policies and programs can encourage work shifts to spread out commuter traffic and relegate truck and parcel deliveries. Carts to ease delivery and pickup with motorized vehicles can be made available.
4. Parking Supply:  Are all buildings required to supply a generous volume of parking space that dilute density and degrade pedestrian experiences? Is there a comprehensive strategy to encourage peripheral parking and better use central space for sidewalks, green plazas and high-turnover (i.e. metered) parking? Are parking lots landscaped? If employees get free parking, are comparable benefits available to those who walk, bike or commute by transit? Do car-free tenants pay less in rent if they don’t use “free” parking?

Arterial intersections kill pedestrian comfort and safety.

5. Bikeways and Bike-Lanes:  What does City Hall do to accommodate and encourage biking? A network of busways and lanes can make a large difference, as can the provision of bike rakes and shower facilities at places of employment.
6. Carpooling and Carsharing:  Do employers help workers form carpools and support them with subsidies and preferential parking areas? Does City Hall provide convenient space for carsharing schemes such as Zipcar? This service can lead many residents to not own a car, instead renting when they need the flexibility of a private vehicle.
7. Taxi Regulation and Facilitation:  Taxis are a high-priced form of public mobility that makes a profit with no need of government subsidies. Does City Hall allow enough cabs to keep fares low, helping households to live without owning a car? Are vehicles in good condition? Is driver behavior safe and honest? How are disputes resolved?

The quality of urban life depends on a vast array of local policies, regional decisions and national funding programs.

8. Sidewalk Landscaping and Maintenance:  People who walk notice details that drivers don’t. Heels get caught in pavement cracks and gaps. Litter is visually offense. How diligently does City Hall repair and maintain sidewalks and curbs? Does sustained landscaping add beauty and screen out unsightly sections such as rubbish bins? Does street furniture add comfort and convenience? Are street and store signs regulated to enhance aesthetic impacts? Small details matter.
9. Transit-Oriented Development (TOD):  Do building codes and zoning ordinances encourage denser development around transit stations? Do housing subsidy and mortgage programs promote similar priorities? Spatial planners typically use one-quarter mile (a bit over 400 meters) as the distance most citizens will walk. APMs overcome that limit. Examples can be found in resorts and historic districts. Rough system costs are $3-5 million for low-capacity shuttles over a distance of less than 500 meters. Use $5-15 million for higher capacities of over a kilometer.

Although cities do not run public transit (except for senior citizen shuttles), there are many measures local policy-makers can use to encourage high-density living and life-styles less dependent on cars.